The task of raising money for a business is not as difficult as most people seem to think. This is especially true when you have an idea that can make you and your backers rich. Actually, there's more money available for new business ventures than there are good business ideas.
A very important rule of the game to learn: Anytime you want to raise money, your first move should be to put together a proper prospectus.
This prospectus should include a resume of your background, your education, training, experience and any other personal qualities that might be counted as an asset to your potential success. It's also a good idea to list the various loans you've had in the past, what they were for, and your history in paying them off.
You'll have to explain in detail how the money you want is going to be used. If it's for an existing business, you'll need a profit and loss record for at least the proceeding six months, and a plan showing how this additional money will produce greater profits. If it's a new business, you'll have to show your proposed business plan. Your marketing research and projected cost, as well as anticipated income figure, with a summary for each year, over at least a three-year period.
It'll be advantageous to you to base your cost estimates high, and your income projections on minimal returns. This will enable you to "ride through" those extreme "ups and downs" inherent in any beginning business. You should also describe what makes your business unique-how it differs from your competition, and the opportunities for expansion or secondary products.
This prospectus will have to state precisely what you're offering the investor in return for the use of his money. He'll want to know the percentage of interest you're willing to pay, and whether monthly, quarterly or on an annual basis. Are you offering a certain percentage of the profits? A percentage of the business -A seat on your board of directors?
An investor uses his money to make more money. He wants to make as mush as he can, regardless whether it's a short term or long term deal. In order to attract him, interest him, and persuade him to "put up" the money you need, you'll not only have to spell it out in detail, and further, back up your claims with proof from your marketing research.
Venture investors are usually quite familiar with "high risk" proposals, yet they all want to minimize that risk as much as possible. Therefore, your prospectus should include a listing of your business and personal assets with documentation- usually copies of your tax returns for the past three years or more. Your prospective investor may not know anything about you or your business, but if he wants to know, he can pick up his telephone and know everything there is to know within 24 hours. The point here is don’t ever try to "con" a potential investor. Be honest with him. Lay all the facts on the table for him in most cases, if you've got a good idea and you've done your homework properly, an "interested investor" will understand your position and offer more help than you dared to ask.
When you have your prospectus prepared, know how much money you want, exactly how it will be used, and how you intend to repay it. You're ready to start looking for investors.
As simple as it seems, one of the easiest ways of raising money is by advertising in a newspaper of a national publication featuring such ads. Your ad should state the amount of money you want-always for more money than you need so you have room for negotiating. Your ad should also state the type of business involved (to separate the curious from the truly interested), and the kind of return you're promising on the investment.
Take a page from the party plan merchandisers. Set up a party and invite your friends over. Explain your business plan, the profit potentials, and how much you need. Give them each a copy of your prospectus and ask that they pledge a thousand dollars as a non-participating partner in your business. Check with the current tax regulations. You may be allowed up to 25 partners in Sub Chapter S enterprises, opening the door for anyone to gather a group of friend around himself with something to offer them in return for their assistance in capitalizing his business.
You can also issue and sell up to $300.00 worth of stock in your company without going through the SEC. You'll need the help of an attorney to do this, however, and of course a good tax accountant as well wouldn't hurt.
It's always a good idea to have an attorney and an accountant help you make up your business prospectus. As you explain your plan to them, and ask for their advice, casually ask them if they'd mind letting you know of, or steer your way any potential investor they might happen to meet. Do the same with your banker. Give him a copy of your prospectus and ask him if he'd look it over and offer any suggestion for improving it, and of course, let you know of any potential investors. In either case, it's always a good idea to let them know you're willing to pay a "finder's fee" if you can be directed to the right investor.
Professional people such as doctors and dentists are known to have a tendency to join occupational investment groups. The next time you talk with your doctor or dentist, give him a prospectus and explain your plan. He may want to invest on his own or perhaps set up an appointment for you to talk with the manager of his investment group. Either way, you win because when you're looking for money, it's essential that you get the word out to as many potential investors as possible.
Don't overlook the possibilities of the Small Business Investment Companies in your area. Look them up in your telephone book under "Investment Services." These companies exist for the sole purpose of lending money to businesses, which they feel have a good chance of making money. In many instances, they trade their help for a small interest in your company.
Many states have Business Development Commissions whose goal is to assist in the establishment and growth of new businesses. Not only do they offer favorable taxes and business expertise, most also offer money or facilities to help a new business get started. Your Chamber of Commerce is the place to check for further information on this idea.
Industrial banks are usually much more amenable to making business loans than regular banks, so be sure to check out these institutions in your area. Insurance companies are prime sources of long-term business capital, but each company varies its policies regarding the type of business it will consider. Check your local agent for the name and directors of another company to invest in your business. Look for a company that can benefit from your product or service. Also, be sure to check at you public library for available foundation grants. These can be the final answer to all your needs if your business is perceived to be related to the objectives and activities of the foundation.
Finally, there's the Money Broker or Finder. These are the people who take your prospectus and circulate it with various known lenders or investors. They always require an up-front or retainer fee, and there's no way they can guarantee to get you the loan or the money you want.
There are many very good money brokers, and there are some that are not so good. They all take a percentage of the gross amount that's finally procured for your needs. The important thing is to check them out fully; find out about the successful loans or investment plans they've arranged, and what kind of investor contacts they have all of this before you put up any front money or pay any retainer fees.
There are many ways to raise money-from staging garage sales to selling stocks. Don't make the mistake of thinking that the only place you can find the money you need is through the bank or finance company.
Start thinking about the idea of inviting investors to share in your business as silent partners. Think about the idea of obtaining financing for a primary business by arranging financing for another business that will support the start-up, establishment and development of the primary business. Consider the feasibility of merging with a company that's already organized, and with facilities that are compatible or related to your needs. Give some thought to the possibilities of getting the people supplying your production equipment to co-sign the loan you need for start-up capital. This is truly the age of creative financing.
Disregard the stories you hear of "tight money," and start making phone calls, talking to people, and making appointments to discuss your plans with the people who have money to invest. There's more money now than there's ever been for new business investment. The problem is that most beginning "business builders" don't know what to believe or which way to turn for help. They tend to believe the stories of "tight money," and they set aside their plans for a business of their own until a time when start-up money might be easier to find.
The truth is this: Now is the time to make your move. Now is the time to act. The person with a truly viable business plan, and determination to succeed, will make use of every possible idea that can be imagined. And the ideas I've suggested here should serve as just a few of the unlimited sources of monetary help available and waiting for you!
Saturday, June 2, 2007
Small Business
TitleNewestOldest
Small Biz: When Restless Kids Hamper Home-Based Workers How To Keep Your Business By : Wendy MitchellThere's a solution to a common problem for many home-based workers, small-business owners and corporate teleworkers.
Best Small Business Opportunity: How To Sort Through The Junk By : Wonder Nyatanga -Finding the best small business opportunity is not always the easiest thing to do. Although more people than ever before are starting small businesses, there are so many obstacles that this can be difficult. But you should remember that there are people who have made a fortune by growing their small business into something that is much more than that. If you want to do this, you should look into finding the best small business opportunity imaginable. But before you can do thi...
Get a free vase with these spring flower bouquets! By : Thomas de JesusExpress Regalo offers a fine selection of spring flower bouquets that are sure to please! Get a free vase with every dozen flowers, perfect for displaying those lovely blooms.
Tips For Small Business Costs By : Craig Ritsema -Many first-time business owners are completely overwhelmed or unprepared by the amount of small business costs associated with operating a business. Small business costs often lead to the failure of many businesses, especially during the first year, or they even prevent them from getting started in the first place. Through a wide array of government and private programs, however, many small business owners have helpful options to help them finance their mounting small busines...
Seven Things You Should Know About Your Customers By : James DelrojoWhat do you really know about your customers? Customers are the life blood of your business and the more you understand them the easier it becomes to increase your bottom line profit. Here are seven questions to ask and answer about your customers.
Professional Business Plan Writers: Should You Hire One? By : Robert WarlowDo you need to write a business plan? The thought of preparing a business plan tends to fill most business owners with dread; it can be a difficult, stressful, and time consuming process. For this reason alone you may want to think about seeking the help of a professional business plan writer.
Does small business need IT management? By : Romualdas MaciulisLarge and medium enterprise managers are familiar with the term "IT Management" or "IT Service Management".But what about a small company with only tens of computers? Naturally, in this scenario “IT management” is a much more down-to-earth thing.
Is CRM A Reality For Small Business? By : Sayed Ally -Every where you turn the buzz is about customer relationship management or CRM and how it is the best thing for boosting your company’s profits. But is CRM a reality for small business? Great news! It is affordable for all business!First it’s important to understand what CRM is. CRM is more than just a technology. It is the final step in creating an effective customer relationship management system.CRM is a system that retains and analyzes customer data. It’s a powerf...
How To Price Your Products By : Sam LiftonWhether you are a budding entrepreneur or a veteran businessman, I bet you've had your share of pricing problems. For how much would I sell this contraption? Would my customers buy it at that price?
Avoding Small Business Costs Problems By : Craig RitsemaMany first-time business owners are completely overwhelmed or unprepared by the amount of small business costs associated with operating a business. Small business costs often lead to the failure of many businesses, especially during the first year, or they even prevent them from getting started in the first place. Through a wide array of government and private programs, however, many small business owners have helpful options to help them finance their mounting small business costs.
Journalist from India covering news in California – What the Heck? By : SinghR“What the heck?” That’s what I blurted this morning after reading an article about a Newspaper in Pasadena that hired two journalists from India to cover news 12,841 km away from their homeland.
Solution to the problem with registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinRegistered office is a must to run a business in UK. But it is not at all easy to manage one, particularly for the small firms. Here a cost-effective solution to this problem is suggested.
Send a sympathy wreath to express your sympathy By : Thomas de JesusSympathy wreaths are the best possible way to express your sorrow if you're far away from someone passed away. Philippine flower delivery via Express Regalo is efficient and fast, ensuring your feelings are expressed speedily and accurately. The website of this online Philippine flower shop showcases several sympathy flowers for you to choose from.
Small Business Opportunties In Franchising By : Raymond Lawrence -Franchising is a great opportunity to take a tried business plan that has proven successful and run a business of your own on that model. Of course, there are rules that must be followed and fees that must be paid, but in the long run buying a franchise that has already established itself in the market can be a very lucrative business. However, buying a franchise can be very expensive, which limits the individuals who are actually able to afford buying a franchise in the firs...
Grant Funding for Small Businesses By : Kasey McCallumFinding the money to keep a small business running is a top priority for business owners. Late night TV commercials and internet ads make it look as though grant money is growing on trees, waiting for the small business owner to just pick it. The truth is most small businesses do not qualify for grants. This article discusses how small businesses can be structured to qualify for grants and how to find a professional grant writer to help them tap into government and corporate funding.
Small Business Productivity: How to Take Your Company to the Next Level through Efficient Technology By : Thomas BurnsSmall businesses thrive when productivity is maximized. The best way to maximize productivity is through efficient technology. Efficient technology for small businesses probably will not create the next great product or service, but it will help you with everything else your company must do to get that product or service to market and to deliver it to the customer.
Finding A Small Business Opportunity Magazine Is Important By : Katie Ford -There are many people that are looking for additional ways to earn money, and many feel that starting a small business is a way to do this. Owning your own business has its perks. You can become your own boss, set your own work schedule, and reduce or eliminate your commute to an office. You will now have time to spend on the things that matter to you in life, such as quality time spent with your family. Before you begin, however, you should know that you are going to be ...
Supply Chain Management for the Small Business Owner By : Shay RosenSupply chain management can be a complicated endeavor for multi location retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers and other business entities, though it’s no less complicated for small business owners and job shops who rely on the precise availability and deliverability of goods. If anything, small business owners have even more at stake, as they often lack the operating budget to withstand serious disruptions in the supply chain that would be more easily dealt with by larger businesses.
The role of registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinThis article discusses the role of registered office in successful running of a business in UK with special reference to the duties of the company secretary.
Venue Finder at Your Service By : Dona MarkleyIt is very important to select the right venue, especially if it is some professional event. There are different kinds of venue for different kinds of events. But it is a tough job to search and select the right one in UK. Professional Venue finder in UK can be of immense help.
Make Money From Good Manners By : Steve CarterThere is always something for anyone, of any age, from anywhere, to learn. One of the greatest things about being human is that we can learn new things whenever we want to, at nearly any time we want to, and there are so many people out there who are willing to teach us. There is something that nearly every parent teaches their children, and it is often one of the first things they teach their children. I'm talking about basic manners, including saying thank you, please, you are welcome, etc.
Work From Home Internet Business - How Do You Find The Right One For You? By : Matt KurenWhen you search for a work from home internet business you will get a lot of opportunities that you can do. However, you want to be careful about the one that you choose. You want to find the right work from home internet business for you the first time. That way you will not have to keep changing. When you have to keep jumping from one to the other you will get discouraged very fast. Let me tell you what you need do to find the right internet business.
Ensure the success of organisational conferences through the services of free venue finders By : Dona MarkleyThere are a number of professional venue-finding agencies that offer the service of selecting a suitable venue for official conferences/ official events. You may opt for free venue finders to minimise the time and effort you expend in searching for a suitable conference venue.
Conference venue: a reflection of your organisation's image By : Dona MarkleySelecting a proper conference venue is critical for the success of a corporate event. You can avail the services of specialist agencies who can help you find a suitable conference venue within your budget.
Father and Son Revolutionize Portable Rigging Crane By : Ez-Rig CranesFamily owned business dedicate themselves to manufacturing a unique portable rigging crane new to market. Initiall designed for HVAC, PIP, Sheet metal, cement and steel erection, the crane is selling internationally in many markets.
Create Logos For Hungry Businesses & Reap The Money By : Steve CarterIf you are handy with a graphic design package and have software to create fancy looking writing then you could make very good money creating logos for people.
How To Make £200 An Hour By : Steve CarterIf you are like most people, you have had occasion to notice the ceilings in offices when you have had to spend time waiting for an appointment or you may have worked in one. Notice how the ceiling looks like a grid with (usually) white panels? Those are fire retardant suspended ceilings. And there is money in them.
Derive Better Business With A Registered Office By : Darvy KaitlinRegistered office means you can have an address at a commercial area giving your business more visibility and better identity.
The problem with registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinIt is a must to maintain a registered office in order to run a business in UK. But it is a difficult task to manage such an office. To do this work for others, there emerged a number of firms. By taking their service one can easily manage such an office.
Philippine flower shop sells sympathy wreaths online By : expressregaloFilipinos abroad can now order sympathy wreaths online! Philippine flower shop Express Regalo has made a variety of sympathy wreaths available via its website!
Small Biz: When Restless Kids Hamper Home-Based Workers How To Keep Your Business By : Wendy MitchellThere's a solution to a common problem for many home-based workers, small-business owners and corporate teleworkers.
Best Small Business Opportunity: How To Sort Through The Junk By : Wonder Nyatanga -Finding the best small business opportunity is not always the easiest thing to do. Although more people than ever before are starting small businesses, there are so many obstacles that this can be difficult. But you should remember that there are people who have made a fortune by growing their small business into something that is much more than that. If you want to do this, you should look into finding the best small business opportunity imaginable. But before you can do thi...
Get a free vase with these spring flower bouquets! By : Thomas de JesusExpress Regalo offers a fine selection of spring flower bouquets that are sure to please! Get a free vase with every dozen flowers, perfect for displaying those lovely blooms.
Tips For Small Business Costs By : Craig Ritsema -Many first-time business owners are completely overwhelmed or unprepared by the amount of small business costs associated with operating a business. Small business costs often lead to the failure of many businesses, especially during the first year, or they even prevent them from getting started in the first place. Through a wide array of government and private programs, however, many small business owners have helpful options to help them finance their mounting small busines...
Seven Things You Should Know About Your Customers By : James DelrojoWhat do you really know about your customers? Customers are the life blood of your business and the more you understand them the easier it becomes to increase your bottom line profit. Here are seven questions to ask and answer about your customers.
Professional Business Plan Writers: Should You Hire One? By : Robert WarlowDo you need to write a business plan? The thought of preparing a business plan tends to fill most business owners with dread; it can be a difficult, stressful, and time consuming process. For this reason alone you may want to think about seeking the help of a professional business plan writer.
Does small business need IT management? By : Romualdas MaciulisLarge and medium enterprise managers are familiar with the term "IT Management" or "IT Service Management".But what about a small company with only tens of computers? Naturally, in this scenario “IT management” is a much more down-to-earth thing.
Is CRM A Reality For Small Business? By : Sayed Ally -Every where you turn the buzz is about customer relationship management or CRM and how it is the best thing for boosting your company’s profits. But is CRM a reality for small business? Great news! It is affordable for all business!First it’s important to understand what CRM is. CRM is more than just a technology. It is the final step in creating an effective customer relationship management system.CRM is a system that retains and analyzes customer data. It’s a powerf...
How To Price Your Products By : Sam LiftonWhether you are a budding entrepreneur or a veteran businessman, I bet you've had your share of pricing problems. For how much would I sell this contraption? Would my customers buy it at that price?
Avoding Small Business Costs Problems By : Craig RitsemaMany first-time business owners are completely overwhelmed or unprepared by the amount of small business costs associated with operating a business. Small business costs often lead to the failure of many businesses, especially during the first year, or they even prevent them from getting started in the first place. Through a wide array of government and private programs, however, many small business owners have helpful options to help them finance their mounting small business costs.
Journalist from India covering news in California – What the Heck? By : SinghR“What the heck?” That’s what I blurted this morning after reading an article about a Newspaper in Pasadena that hired two journalists from India to cover news 12,841 km away from their homeland.
Solution to the problem with registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinRegistered office is a must to run a business in UK. But it is not at all easy to manage one, particularly for the small firms. Here a cost-effective solution to this problem is suggested.
Send a sympathy wreath to express your sympathy By : Thomas de JesusSympathy wreaths are the best possible way to express your sorrow if you're far away from someone passed away. Philippine flower delivery via Express Regalo is efficient and fast, ensuring your feelings are expressed speedily and accurately. The website of this online Philippine flower shop showcases several sympathy flowers for you to choose from.
Small Business Opportunties In Franchising By : Raymond Lawrence -Franchising is a great opportunity to take a tried business plan that has proven successful and run a business of your own on that model. Of course, there are rules that must be followed and fees that must be paid, but in the long run buying a franchise that has already established itself in the market can be a very lucrative business. However, buying a franchise can be very expensive, which limits the individuals who are actually able to afford buying a franchise in the firs...
Grant Funding for Small Businesses By : Kasey McCallumFinding the money to keep a small business running is a top priority for business owners. Late night TV commercials and internet ads make it look as though grant money is growing on trees, waiting for the small business owner to just pick it. The truth is most small businesses do not qualify for grants. This article discusses how small businesses can be structured to qualify for grants and how to find a professional grant writer to help them tap into government and corporate funding.
Small Business Productivity: How to Take Your Company to the Next Level through Efficient Technology By : Thomas BurnsSmall businesses thrive when productivity is maximized. The best way to maximize productivity is through efficient technology. Efficient technology for small businesses probably will not create the next great product or service, but it will help you with everything else your company must do to get that product or service to market and to deliver it to the customer.
Finding A Small Business Opportunity Magazine Is Important By : Katie Ford -There are many people that are looking for additional ways to earn money, and many feel that starting a small business is a way to do this. Owning your own business has its perks. You can become your own boss, set your own work schedule, and reduce or eliminate your commute to an office. You will now have time to spend on the things that matter to you in life, such as quality time spent with your family. Before you begin, however, you should know that you are going to be ...
Supply Chain Management for the Small Business Owner By : Shay RosenSupply chain management can be a complicated endeavor for multi location retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers and other business entities, though it’s no less complicated for small business owners and job shops who rely on the precise availability and deliverability of goods. If anything, small business owners have even more at stake, as they often lack the operating budget to withstand serious disruptions in the supply chain that would be more easily dealt with by larger businesses.
The role of registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinThis article discusses the role of registered office in successful running of a business in UK with special reference to the duties of the company secretary.
Venue Finder at Your Service By : Dona MarkleyIt is very important to select the right venue, especially if it is some professional event. There are different kinds of venue for different kinds of events. But it is a tough job to search and select the right one in UK. Professional Venue finder in UK can be of immense help.
Make Money From Good Manners By : Steve CarterThere is always something for anyone, of any age, from anywhere, to learn. One of the greatest things about being human is that we can learn new things whenever we want to, at nearly any time we want to, and there are so many people out there who are willing to teach us. There is something that nearly every parent teaches their children, and it is often one of the first things they teach their children. I'm talking about basic manners, including saying thank you, please, you are welcome, etc.
Work From Home Internet Business - How Do You Find The Right One For You? By : Matt KurenWhen you search for a work from home internet business you will get a lot of opportunities that you can do. However, you want to be careful about the one that you choose. You want to find the right work from home internet business for you the first time. That way you will not have to keep changing. When you have to keep jumping from one to the other you will get discouraged very fast. Let me tell you what you need do to find the right internet business.
Ensure the success of organisational conferences through the services of free venue finders By : Dona MarkleyThere are a number of professional venue-finding agencies that offer the service of selecting a suitable venue for official conferences/ official events. You may opt for free venue finders to minimise the time and effort you expend in searching for a suitable conference venue.
Conference venue: a reflection of your organisation's image By : Dona MarkleySelecting a proper conference venue is critical for the success of a corporate event. You can avail the services of specialist agencies who can help you find a suitable conference venue within your budget.
Father and Son Revolutionize Portable Rigging Crane By : Ez-Rig CranesFamily owned business dedicate themselves to manufacturing a unique portable rigging crane new to market. Initiall designed for HVAC, PIP, Sheet metal, cement and steel erection, the crane is selling internationally in many markets.
Create Logos For Hungry Businesses & Reap The Money By : Steve CarterIf you are handy with a graphic design package and have software to create fancy looking writing then you could make very good money creating logos for people.
How To Make £200 An Hour By : Steve CarterIf you are like most people, you have had occasion to notice the ceilings in offices when you have had to spend time waiting for an appointment or you may have worked in one. Notice how the ceiling looks like a grid with (usually) white panels? Those are fire retardant suspended ceilings. And there is money in them.
Derive Better Business With A Registered Office By : Darvy KaitlinRegistered office means you can have an address at a commercial area giving your business more visibility and better identity.
The problem with registered office in UK By : Darvy KaitlinIt is a must to maintain a registered office in order to run a business in UK. But it is a difficult task to manage such an office. To do this work for others, there emerged a number of firms. By taking their service one can easily manage such an office.
Philippine flower shop sells sympathy wreaths online By : expressregaloFilipinos abroad can now order sympathy wreaths online! Philippine flower shop Express Regalo has made a variety of sympathy wreaths available via its website!
The Perfect Business
AH PERFECTION: Strange, but the most popular, the most widely-requested, and the most widely quoted piece I've ever written was not about the stock market -- it was about business, and specifically about what I call the theoretical "ideal business." I first published this piece in the early-1970s. I repeated it in Letter 881 and then again in Letter 982. I've added a few thoughts in each successive edition. But seldom does a month go by when I don't get requests from subscribers or from some publication or corporation to republish "the ideal business." So here it is again -- with a few added comments.
I once asked a friend, a prominent New York corporate lawyer, "Dave, in all your years of experience, what was the single best business you've ever come across?" Without hesitation, Dave answered, "I have a client whose sole business is manufacturing a chemical that is critical in making synthetic rubber. This chemical is used in very small quantities in rubber manufacturing, but it is absolutely essential and can be used in only super-refined form.
"My client is the only one who manufactures this chemical. He therefore owns a virtual monopoly since this chemical is extremely difficult to manufacture and not enough of it is used to warrant another company competing with him. Furthermore, since the rubber companies need only small quantities of this chemical, they don't particularly care what they pay for it -- as long as it meets their very demanding specifications. My client is a millionaire many times over, and his business is the best I've ever come across." I was fascinated by the lawyer's story, and I never forgot it.
When I was a young man and just out of college my father gave me a few words of advice. Dad had loads of experience; he had been in the paper manufacturing business; he had been assistant to Mr. Sam Bloomingdale (of Bloomingdale's Department store); he had been in construction (he was a civil engineer); and he was also an expert in real estate management.
Here's what my dad told me: "Richard, stay out of the retail business. The hours are too long, and you're dealing with every darn variable under the sun. Stay out of real estate; when hard times arrive real estate comes to a dead stop and then it collapses. Furthermore, real estate is illiquid. When the collapse comes, you can't unload. Get into manufacturing; make something people can use. And make something that you can sell to the world. But Richard, my boy, if you're really serious about making money, get into the money business. It's clean, you can use your brains, you can get rid of your inventory and your mistakes in 30 seconds, and your product, money, never goes out of fashion."
So much for my father's wisdom (which was obviously tainted by the Great Depression). But Dad was a very wise man. For my own part, I've been in a number of businesses -- from textile designing to advertising to book publishing to owning a night club to the investment advisory business.
It's said that every business needs (1) a dreamer, (2) a businessman, and (3) a S.O.B. Well, I don't know about number 3, but most successful businesses do have a number 3 or all too often they seem to have a combined number 2 and number 3.
Bill Gates is known as "America's richest man." Bully for Billy. But do you know what Gates' biggest coup was? When Gates was dealing with IBM, Big Blue needed an operating system for their computer. Gates didn't have one, but he knew where to find one. A little outfit in Seattle had one. Gates bought the system for a mere $50,000 and presented it to IBM. That was the beginning of Microsoft's rise to power. Lesson: It's not enough to have the product, you have to know and understand your market. Gates didn't have the product, but he knew the market -- and he knew where to acquire the product.
Apple had by far the best product in the Mac. But Apple made a monumental mistake. They refused to license ALL PC manufacturers to use the Mac operating system. If they had, Apple today could be Microsoft, and Gates would still be trying to come out with something useful (the fact is Microsoft has been a follower and a great marketer, not an innovator). "Find a need and fill it," runs the old adage. Maybe today they should change that to, "Dream up a need and fill it." That's what has happened in the world of computers. And it will happen again and again.
All right, let's return to that wonderful world of perfection. I spent a lot of time and thought in working up the criteria for what I've termed the IDEAL BUSINESS. Now obviously, the ideal business doesn't exist and probably never will. But if you're about to start a business or join someone else's business or if you want to buy a business, the following list may help you. The more of these criteria that you can apply to your new business or new job, the better off you'll be.
(1) The ideal business sells the world, rather than a single neighborhood or even a single city or state. In other words, it has an unlimited global market (and today this is more important than ever, since world markets have now opened up to an extent unparalleled in my lifetime). By the way, how many times have you seen a retail store that has been doing well for years -- then another bigger and better retail store moves nearby, and it's kaput for the first store.
(2) The ideal business offers a product which enjoys an "inelastic" demand. Inelastic refers to a product that people need or desire -- almost regardless of price.
(3) The ideal business sells a product which cannot be easily substituted or copied. This means that the product is an original or at least it's something that can be copyrighted or patented.
(4) The ideal business has minimal labor requirements (the fewer personnel, the better). Today's example of this is the much-talked about "virtual corporation." The virtual corporation may consist of an office with three executives, where literally all manufacturing and services are farmed out to other companies.
(5) The ideal business enjoys low overhead. It does not need an expensive location; it does not need large amounts of electricity, advertising, legal advice, high-priced employees, large inventory, etc.
(6) The ideal business does not require big cash outlays or major investments in equipment. In other words, it does not tie up your capital (incidentally, one of the major reasons for new-business failure is under-capitalization).
(7) The ideal business enjoys cash billings. In other words, it does not tie up your capital with lengthy or complex credit terms.
(8) The ideal business is relatively free of all kinds of government and industry regulations and strictures (and if you're now in your own business, you most definitely know what I mean with this one).
(9) The ideal business is portable or easily moveable. This means that you can take your business (and yourself) anywhere you want -- Nevada, Florida, Texas, Washington, S. Dakota (none have state income taxes) or hey, maybe even Monte Carlo or Switzerland or the south of France.
(10) Here's a crucial one that's often overlooked; the ideal business satisfies your intellectual (and often emotional) needs. There's nothing like being fascinated with what you're doing. When that happens, you're not working, you're having fun.
(11) The ideal business leaves you with free time. In other words, it doesn't require your labor and attention 12, 16 or 18 hours a day (my lawyer wife, who leaves the house at 6:30 AM and comes home at 6:30 PM and often later, has been well aware of this one).
(12) Super-important: the ideal business is one in which your income is not limited by your personal output (lawyers and doctors have this problem). No, in the ideal business you can sell 10,000 customers as easily as you sell one (publishing is an example).
That's it. If you use this list it may help you cut through a lot of nonsense and hypocrisy and wishes and dreams regarding what you are looking for in life and in your work. None of us own or work at the ideal business. But it's helpful knowing what we're looking for and dealing with. As a buddy of mine once put it, "I can't lay an egg and I can't cook, but I know what a great omelet looks like and tastes like."For general info regarding subscriptions and signup please contact Dow Theory Letters.For subscription issues, e-mail staff@dowtheoryletters.com Mr. Russell may be e-mailed at this e-mail address, but unfortunately he will not be able to respond to any of the e-mails (due to sheer volume, which sometimes amounts to as many as three dozen a day). Correspondence may be mailed to Mr. Russell at PO Box 1759, La Jolla, CA 92038.
I once asked a friend, a prominent New York corporate lawyer, "Dave, in all your years of experience, what was the single best business you've ever come across?" Without hesitation, Dave answered, "I have a client whose sole business is manufacturing a chemical that is critical in making synthetic rubber. This chemical is used in very small quantities in rubber manufacturing, but it is absolutely essential and can be used in only super-refined form.
"My client is the only one who manufactures this chemical. He therefore owns a virtual monopoly since this chemical is extremely difficult to manufacture and not enough of it is used to warrant another company competing with him. Furthermore, since the rubber companies need only small quantities of this chemical, they don't particularly care what they pay for it -- as long as it meets their very demanding specifications. My client is a millionaire many times over, and his business is the best I've ever come across." I was fascinated by the lawyer's story, and I never forgot it.
When I was a young man and just out of college my father gave me a few words of advice. Dad had loads of experience; he had been in the paper manufacturing business; he had been assistant to Mr. Sam Bloomingdale (of Bloomingdale's Department store); he had been in construction (he was a civil engineer); and he was also an expert in real estate management.
Here's what my dad told me: "Richard, stay out of the retail business. The hours are too long, and you're dealing with every darn variable under the sun. Stay out of real estate; when hard times arrive real estate comes to a dead stop and then it collapses. Furthermore, real estate is illiquid. When the collapse comes, you can't unload. Get into manufacturing; make something people can use. And make something that you can sell to the world. But Richard, my boy, if you're really serious about making money, get into the money business. It's clean, you can use your brains, you can get rid of your inventory and your mistakes in 30 seconds, and your product, money, never goes out of fashion."
So much for my father's wisdom (which was obviously tainted by the Great Depression). But Dad was a very wise man. For my own part, I've been in a number of businesses -- from textile designing to advertising to book publishing to owning a night club to the investment advisory business.
It's said that every business needs (1) a dreamer, (2) a businessman, and (3) a S.O.B. Well, I don't know about number 3, but most successful businesses do have a number 3 or all too often they seem to have a combined number 2 and number 3.
Bill Gates is known as "America's richest man." Bully for Billy. But do you know what Gates' biggest coup was? When Gates was dealing with IBM, Big Blue needed an operating system for their computer. Gates didn't have one, but he knew where to find one. A little outfit in Seattle had one. Gates bought the system for a mere $50,000 and presented it to IBM. That was the beginning of Microsoft's rise to power. Lesson: It's not enough to have the product, you have to know and understand your market. Gates didn't have the product, but he knew the market -- and he knew where to acquire the product.
Apple had by far the best product in the Mac. But Apple made a monumental mistake. They refused to license ALL PC manufacturers to use the Mac operating system. If they had, Apple today could be Microsoft, and Gates would still be trying to come out with something useful (the fact is Microsoft has been a follower and a great marketer, not an innovator). "Find a need and fill it," runs the old adage. Maybe today they should change that to, "Dream up a need and fill it." That's what has happened in the world of computers. And it will happen again and again.
All right, let's return to that wonderful world of perfection. I spent a lot of time and thought in working up the criteria for what I've termed the IDEAL BUSINESS. Now obviously, the ideal business doesn't exist and probably never will. But if you're about to start a business or join someone else's business or if you want to buy a business, the following list may help you. The more of these criteria that you can apply to your new business or new job, the better off you'll be.
(1) The ideal business sells the world, rather than a single neighborhood or even a single city or state. In other words, it has an unlimited global market (and today this is more important than ever, since world markets have now opened up to an extent unparalleled in my lifetime). By the way, how many times have you seen a retail store that has been doing well for years -- then another bigger and better retail store moves nearby, and it's kaput for the first store.
(2) The ideal business offers a product which enjoys an "inelastic" demand. Inelastic refers to a product that people need or desire -- almost regardless of price.
(3) The ideal business sells a product which cannot be easily substituted or copied. This means that the product is an original or at least it's something that can be copyrighted or patented.
(4) The ideal business has minimal labor requirements (the fewer personnel, the better). Today's example of this is the much-talked about "virtual corporation." The virtual corporation may consist of an office with three executives, where literally all manufacturing and services are farmed out to other companies.
(5) The ideal business enjoys low overhead. It does not need an expensive location; it does not need large amounts of electricity, advertising, legal advice, high-priced employees, large inventory, etc.
(6) The ideal business does not require big cash outlays or major investments in equipment. In other words, it does not tie up your capital (incidentally, one of the major reasons for new-business failure is under-capitalization).
(7) The ideal business enjoys cash billings. In other words, it does not tie up your capital with lengthy or complex credit terms.
(8) The ideal business is relatively free of all kinds of government and industry regulations and strictures (and if you're now in your own business, you most definitely know what I mean with this one).
(9) The ideal business is portable or easily moveable. This means that you can take your business (and yourself) anywhere you want -- Nevada, Florida, Texas, Washington, S. Dakota (none have state income taxes) or hey, maybe even Monte Carlo or Switzerland or the south of France.
(10) Here's a crucial one that's often overlooked; the ideal business satisfies your intellectual (and often emotional) needs. There's nothing like being fascinated with what you're doing. When that happens, you're not working, you're having fun.
(11) The ideal business leaves you with free time. In other words, it doesn't require your labor and attention 12, 16 or 18 hours a day (my lawyer wife, who leaves the house at 6:30 AM and comes home at 6:30 PM and often later, has been well aware of this one).
(12) Super-important: the ideal business is one in which your income is not limited by your personal output (lawyers and doctors have this problem). No, in the ideal business you can sell 10,000 customers as easily as you sell one (publishing is an example).
That's it. If you use this list it may help you cut through a lot of nonsense and hypocrisy and wishes and dreams regarding what you are looking for in life and in your work. None of us own or work at the ideal business. But it's helpful knowing what we're looking for and dealing with. As a buddy of mine once put it, "I can't lay an egg and I can't cook, but I know what a great omelet looks like and tastes like."For general info regarding subscriptions and signup please contact Dow Theory Letters.For subscription issues, e-mail staff@dowtheoryletters.com Mr. Russell may be e-mailed at this e-mail address, but unfortunately he will not be able to respond to any of the e-mails (due to sheer volume, which sometimes amounts to as many as three dozen a day). Correspondence may be mailed to Mr. Russell at PO Box 1759, La Jolla, CA 92038.
Money
Money is any good or tokens that functions as a medium of exchange that is socially and legally accepted in payment for goods and services and in settlement of debts. Money also serves as a standard of value for measuring the relative worth of different goods and services. Some authors explicitly require money to be a standard of deferred payment.[1] Money is central to the study of economics and forms its most cogent link to finance.
In common usage, money refers more specifically to currency, particularly the many circulating currencies with legal tender status conferred by a national state; deposit accounts denominated in such currencies are also considered part of the money supply, although these characteristics are historically comparatively recent. Money may also serve as a means of rationing access to scarce resources and as a quantitative measure that provides a common standard for the comparison and valuation of quality as well as quantity, such as in the valuation of real estate or artistic works.
The use of money provides an easier alternative to barter, which is considered in a modern, complex economy to be inefficient because it requires a coincidence of wants between traders, and an agreement that these needs are of equal value, before a transaction can occur. The efficiency gains through the use of money are thought to encourage trade and the division of labour, in turn increasing productivity and wealth.Money is generally considered to have the following characteristics, which are summed up in a rhyme found older economics textbooks and a primer: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store."
There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. Financial capital is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
[edit] Medium of exchange
Main article: Medium of exchange
A medium of exchange is an intermediary used in trade. An effective medium of exchange should have the following characteristics:
It should also be recognizable as something of value. Person A should recognize the value of the item so that Person B can give it to A in exchange for goods or services.
It should be easily transportable; precious metals have a high value to weight ratio. This is why oil, coal, vermiculite, or water are not suitable as money even though they are valuable. Paper notes have proved highly convenient in this regard.
It should be durable. Money is often left in pockets through the wash. Some countries (such as Australia, New Zealand, Mexico and Singapore) are making their bank notes out of plastic for increased durability. Gold coins are often mixed with copper to improve durability.
It should minimize contamination and contagion. Since money is frequently handled it becomes a pathway for infectious disease transmission. Recent studies have shown that the area in business offices that show the highest contamination by disease causing organisms is the accounting office where money must be counted and handled.
[edit] Unit of account
Main article: Unit of account
A unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary pre-requisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt.
An effective unit of account should be:
Divisible into small units without destroying its value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again. This is why leather and live animals are not suitable as money.
Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be exactly equivalent to another, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money.
A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect.
[edit] Store of value
Main article: Store of value
To act as a store of value, a commodity, a form of money, or financial capital must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved - and be predictably useful when it is so retrieved. Fiat currency like paper or electronic currency no longer backed by gold in most countries is not considered by some economists to be a storage of value.
An effective store of value should have the following characteristics:
It should be long lasting and durable; it must not be perishable or subject to decay. This is why food items, expensive spices, or even fine silks or oriental rugs are not generally suitable as money.
It should have a stable value.
It should be difficult to counterfeit, and the genuine must be easily recognizable.
[edit] Market liquidity
Main article: Market liquidity
The fourth and final function of money, as a means of liquidity. It is important for any economy to move beyond a simple system of bartering. Liquidity describes how easy it is an item can be traded for something that you want, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have a low transaction costs. There should be no or minimal spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
[edit] Types of money
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any instrument that can be used in the resolution of debt. However, not all money is created equal.
One early theoretician, Ludwig von Mises, argued for the importance of distinguishing between three types of money: commodity money, fiat money, and credit money. Each carries different economic strengths and liabilities - a point driven home in his book The Theory of Money and Credit.
Modern monetary theory also distinguishes between different types of money, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of money.
[edit] Commodity money
Main article: Commodity money
Commodity money is any money that is both used as a general purpose medium of exchange and as a tradable commodity in its own right.[2]
Commodity based currencies are often viewed as more stable, but this is not always the case. The value of a commodity based currency as a medium of exchange depends on its supply relative to other goods and services available in the economy.
Historically, gold, silver and other metals commonly used in commodity based monetary systems have been subject to regular and sometimes extraordinary fluctuations in purchasing power. This not only damages its stability as a medium of exchange; it also reduces its effectiveness as a store of value. In the 1500 and 1600's huge quantities of gold and even larger amounts of silver were discovered in the New World and brought back to Europe for conversion into coin, the purchasing power of those coins fell by 60% to 80%, i.e. prices of commodities rose, because the supply of goods for sale did not keep pace with the increased supply of money.[3] In addition, the relative value of silver to gold shifted dramatically downward.[4] More recently, from 1980 to 2001, gold was a particularly poor store of value, as gold prices dropped from a high of $850/oz. to a low of $255/oz. The advantage of gold and silver, however, lies in the fact that, unlike fiat paper currency, the supply cannot be increased arbitrarily by a central bank.
It is also possible for the trading value of a commodity money to be greater than its value as a medium of exchange. When this happens people will often start melting down coins and reselling the metal used to make them. This has happened periodically in the United States, eventually causing it to move away from pure silver nickels and pure copper pennies.[citation needed] Shipping coins from one jurisdiction to another so that they could be reminted was sometimes a lucrative trade before the advent of trusted paper money.[citation needed]
Commodity money's ability to function as a store of value is also limited by its very nature. Copper and tin risk rust and corrosion. Gold and silver are soft metals that can lose weight through scratches and abrasions.
Stability aside, commodity based currencies are limiting in a rapidly growing or very active economy. The supply of money in an economy must be equal or greater than the volume of trade. If commodities are used as money, then the money supply must equal the total amount of goods and services sold. In a large economy, the volume of trade can easily outstrip the supply of any one commodity.
This problem is compounded by the fact that money also serves as a store of value. This encourages hoarding and takes the commodity money out circulation, reducing the supply. The supply of circulating commodity currency is further reduced by the fact that commodity moneys also have competing non-monetary uses. For example, gold and silver is used in jewelery and nickel and copper have important industrial uses.
Commodity based currencies also limit the geographic extent of the trading market. To make large purchases either a large volume or a high weight or both of the commodity must be transported to the seller. The cost of transportation of the currency raises the transaction cost and makes long distance sales less attractive.
[edit] Fiat money
Main article: Fiat money
Fiat money is any money whose value is determined by legal means rather than the relative availability of goods and services. Fiat money may be symbolic of a commodity or government promises.[2]
Fiat money provides solutions to several limitations of commodity money. Depending on the laws, there may be little or no need to physically transport the money - an electronic exchange may be sufficient. Its sole use is as a medium of exchange so its supply is not limited by competing alternate uses. It can be printed without limit, so there is no limit on trade volumes.
Fiat money, especially in the form of paper or coins, can be easily damaged or destroyed. However, it has has an advantage over commodity money in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the US government will replace mutilated paper money if at least half of the bill can be reconstructed.[5]. By contrast commodity money is gone for good.
Paper money is especially vulnerable to everyday hazards: from fire, water, termites, and simple wear and tear. Money in the form of minted coins is sometimes destroyed by children placing it on railroad tracks or in amusement park machines that restamp it. In order to reduce replacement costs, many countries are converting to plastic bills. For example, Mexico has changed its twenty and fifty pesos notes, Singapore its $2 and $10 bills, Malaysia with $1,$5,$10,$50 and $100, and Australia and New Zealand their $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100 to plastic for the increased durability.
Some of the benefits of fiat money can be a double-edged sword. For example, if the amount of money in active circulation outstrips the available goods and services for sale, the effect can be inflationary. This can easily happen if governments print money without attention to the level of economic activity or counterfeiters are allowed to flourish.
Perhaps the biggest criticism of paper money relates to the fact that its stability is highly dependent on the stability of the legal system backing the currency. Should the legal system fail, so would the currency that depends on it.
[edit] Credit money
Main article: Credit money
Credit money is any claim against a physical or legal person that can be used for the purchase of goods and services[2]. Credit money differs from commodity and fiat money in two important ways: It is not payable on demand and there is some element of risk that the real value upon fulfillment of the claim will not be equal to real value expected at the time of purchase[2].
This risk comes about in two ways and affects both buyer and seller.
First it is a claim and the claimant may default (not pay). High levels of default have destructive supply side effects. If manufacturers and service providers do not recieve payment for the goods they produce, they will not have the resources to buy the labor and materials needed to produce new goods and services. This reduces supply, increases prices and raises unemployment, possibly triggering a period of stagflation. In extreme cases, widespread defaults can cause a lack of confidence in lending institutions and lead to economic depression. For example, abuse of credit arrangements is considered one of the significant causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s. [6]
The second source of risk is time. Credit money is a promise of future payment. If the interest rate on the claim fails to compensate for the combined impact of the inflation (or deflation) rate and the time value of money, the seller will receive less real value than anticipated. If the interest rate on the claim overcompensates, the buyer will pay more than expected.
[edit] Money supply
Main article: Money supply
Components of US money supply (M1, M2, and M3) since 1959
The money supply is the amount of money available within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply in the US is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the ECB. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of England.
When gold is used as money, the money supply can grow in either of two ways. First, the money supply can increase as the amount of gold increases by new gold mining at about 2% per year, but it can also increase more during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the new world and brought gold back to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This kind of increase helps debtors, and causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. Second, the money supply can increase when the value of gold goes up, as this makes existing stocks of gold more valuable. This kind of increase helps savers and creditors and is called deflation, where items for sale are increasingly less expensive in terms of gold. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold was used as money in the US from 1792 to 1913.
[edit] Monetary policy
Main article: Monetary policy
Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek “to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.” [7]
A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages on imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the various tools used to control the money supply include:
currency purchases or sales
increasing or lowering government spending
increasing or lowering government borrowing
changing the rate at which the government loans or borrows money
manipulation of exchange rates
taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country
raising or lowering bank reserve requirements
regulation or prohibition of private currencies
For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz [8] supported by the work of David Laidler[9], and many others.
Technical, institutional, and legal changes changed the nature of the demand for money during the 1980s and the influence of monetarism has since decreased.
[edit] Social and psychological value of money
Main article: Social and psychological value of money
Money is universally valued; Money today is valued for the products and services for which it can be exchanged, the security it provides against unexpected needs, the economic power it generates, the political influence it exerts, the social status it offers to those who possess it, and also the self-confidence and sense of accomplishment it fosters in those who earn it.
Theories abound to explain the economic value of money in terms of purchasing power. But in order to fully understand the value of money, economic theory is not sufficient. Money has acquired the all-pervasive value that it possesses today by a slow evolutionary process that can be most easily understood by tracing its social and psychological origins from ancient times. Money has to be viewed in a wider context as a social institution based on the consent of the population and as a psychological symbol based on the consent of the individual.
[edit] Quotations on money
"No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other; or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You can't serve both God and Mammon." Gospel of Matthew 6:24
"For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil: which while some coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows." First Epistle to Timothy 6:10
"When it's a question of money, everybody is of the same religion." Voltaire
"Only when the last tree has died and the last river been poisoned and the last fish been caught will we realise we cannot eat money." Cree proverb
"When I have money, I get rid of it quickly, lest it find a way into my heart." John Wesley
"Money. It's a gas." Pink Floyd
"Everybody loves money. That's why it's called 'money'." Danny DeVito
"Money doesn't talk, it swears." Bob Dylan
"I spend money with reckless abandon. Last month I blew five thousand dollars at a reincarnation seminar. I got to thinking, what the hell, you only live once." Ronnie Shakes
"So you think that money is the root of all evil? Have you ever asked what is the root of money? Money is a tool of exchange, which can't exist unless there are goods produced and men able to produce them. Money is the material shape of the principle that men who wish to deal with one another must deal by trade and give value for value. Money is not the tool of the moochers, who claim your product by tears or of the looters, who take it from you by force. Money is made possible only by the men who produce. Is this what you consider evil?" Ayn Rand
"The study of money, above all other fields in economics, is one in which complexity is used to disguise truth or to evade truth, not to reveal it. The process by which banks creates money is so simple that mind is repelled." John Kenneth Galbraith
"If you want to know what a man is really like, take notice of how he acts when he loses money." New England Proverb
"Money is worthless unless some people have it and others do not"
In common usage, money refers more specifically to currency, particularly the many circulating currencies with legal tender status conferred by a national state; deposit accounts denominated in such currencies are also considered part of the money supply, although these characteristics are historically comparatively recent. Money may also serve as a means of rationing access to scarce resources and as a quantitative measure that provides a common standard for the comparison and valuation of quality as well as quantity, such as in the valuation of real estate or artistic works.
The use of money provides an easier alternative to barter, which is considered in a modern, complex economy to be inefficient because it requires a coincidence of wants between traders, and an agreement that these needs are of equal value, before a transaction can occur. The efficiency gains through the use of money are thought to encourage trade and the division of labour, in turn increasing productivity and wealth.Money is generally considered to have the following characteristics, which are summed up in a rhyme found older economics textbooks and a primer: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store."
There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. Financial capital is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
[edit] Medium of exchange
Main article: Medium of exchange
A medium of exchange is an intermediary used in trade. An effective medium of exchange should have the following characteristics:
It should also be recognizable as something of value. Person A should recognize the value of the item so that Person B can give it to A in exchange for goods or services.
It should be easily transportable; precious metals have a high value to weight ratio. This is why oil, coal, vermiculite, or water are not suitable as money even though they are valuable. Paper notes have proved highly convenient in this regard.
It should be durable. Money is often left in pockets through the wash. Some countries (such as Australia, New Zealand, Mexico and Singapore) are making their bank notes out of plastic for increased durability. Gold coins are often mixed with copper to improve durability.
It should minimize contamination and contagion. Since money is frequently handled it becomes a pathway for infectious disease transmission. Recent studies have shown that the area in business offices that show the highest contamination by disease causing organisms is the accounting office where money must be counted and handled.
[edit] Unit of account
Main article: Unit of account
A unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary pre-requisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt.
An effective unit of account should be:
Divisible into small units without destroying its value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again. This is why leather and live animals are not suitable as money.
Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be exactly equivalent to another, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money.
A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect.
[edit] Store of value
Main article: Store of value
To act as a store of value, a commodity, a form of money, or financial capital must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved - and be predictably useful when it is so retrieved. Fiat currency like paper or electronic currency no longer backed by gold in most countries is not considered by some economists to be a storage of value.
An effective store of value should have the following characteristics:
It should be long lasting and durable; it must not be perishable or subject to decay. This is why food items, expensive spices, or even fine silks or oriental rugs are not generally suitable as money.
It should have a stable value.
It should be difficult to counterfeit, and the genuine must be easily recognizable.
[edit] Market liquidity
Main article: Market liquidity
The fourth and final function of money, as a means of liquidity. It is important for any economy to move beyond a simple system of bartering. Liquidity describes how easy it is an item can be traded for something that you want, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have a low transaction costs. There should be no or minimal spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
[edit] Types of money
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any instrument that can be used in the resolution of debt. However, not all money is created equal.
One early theoretician, Ludwig von Mises, argued for the importance of distinguishing between three types of money: commodity money, fiat money, and credit money. Each carries different economic strengths and liabilities - a point driven home in his book The Theory of Money and Credit.
Modern monetary theory also distinguishes between different types of money, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of money.
[edit] Commodity money
Main article: Commodity money
Commodity money is any money that is both used as a general purpose medium of exchange and as a tradable commodity in its own right.[2]
Commodity based currencies are often viewed as more stable, but this is not always the case. The value of a commodity based currency as a medium of exchange depends on its supply relative to other goods and services available in the economy.
Historically, gold, silver and other metals commonly used in commodity based monetary systems have been subject to regular and sometimes extraordinary fluctuations in purchasing power. This not only damages its stability as a medium of exchange; it also reduces its effectiveness as a store of value. In the 1500 and 1600's huge quantities of gold and even larger amounts of silver were discovered in the New World and brought back to Europe for conversion into coin, the purchasing power of those coins fell by 60% to 80%, i.e. prices of commodities rose, because the supply of goods for sale did not keep pace with the increased supply of money.[3] In addition, the relative value of silver to gold shifted dramatically downward.[4] More recently, from 1980 to 2001, gold was a particularly poor store of value, as gold prices dropped from a high of $850/oz. to a low of $255/oz. The advantage of gold and silver, however, lies in the fact that, unlike fiat paper currency, the supply cannot be increased arbitrarily by a central bank.
It is also possible for the trading value of a commodity money to be greater than its value as a medium of exchange. When this happens people will often start melting down coins and reselling the metal used to make them. This has happened periodically in the United States, eventually causing it to move away from pure silver nickels and pure copper pennies.[citation needed] Shipping coins from one jurisdiction to another so that they could be reminted was sometimes a lucrative trade before the advent of trusted paper money.[citation needed]
Commodity money's ability to function as a store of value is also limited by its very nature. Copper and tin risk rust and corrosion. Gold and silver are soft metals that can lose weight through scratches and abrasions.
Stability aside, commodity based currencies are limiting in a rapidly growing or very active economy. The supply of money in an economy must be equal or greater than the volume of trade. If commodities are used as money, then the money supply must equal the total amount of goods and services sold. In a large economy, the volume of trade can easily outstrip the supply of any one commodity.
This problem is compounded by the fact that money also serves as a store of value. This encourages hoarding and takes the commodity money out circulation, reducing the supply. The supply of circulating commodity currency is further reduced by the fact that commodity moneys also have competing non-monetary uses. For example, gold and silver is used in jewelery and nickel and copper have important industrial uses.
Commodity based currencies also limit the geographic extent of the trading market. To make large purchases either a large volume or a high weight or both of the commodity must be transported to the seller. The cost of transportation of the currency raises the transaction cost and makes long distance sales less attractive.
[edit] Fiat money
Main article: Fiat money
Fiat money is any money whose value is determined by legal means rather than the relative availability of goods and services. Fiat money may be symbolic of a commodity or government promises.[2]
Fiat money provides solutions to several limitations of commodity money. Depending on the laws, there may be little or no need to physically transport the money - an electronic exchange may be sufficient. Its sole use is as a medium of exchange so its supply is not limited by competing alternate uses. It can be printed without limit, so there is no limit on trade volumes.
Fiat money, especially in the form of paper or coins, can be easily damaged or destroyed. However, it has has an advantage over commodity money in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the US government will replace mutilated paper money if at least half of the bill can be reconstructed.[5]. By contrast commodity money is gone for good.
Paper money is especially vulnerable to everyday hazards: from fire, water, termites, and simple wear and tear. Money in the form of minted coins is sometimes destroyed by children placing it on railroad tracks or in amusement park machines that restamp it. In order to reduce replacement costs, many countries are converting to plastic bills. For example, Mexico has changed its twenty and fifty pesos notes, Singapore its $2 and $10 bills, Malaysia with $1,$5,$10,$50 and $100, and Australia and New Zealand their $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100 to plastic for the increased durability.
Some of the benefits of fiat money can be a double-edged sword. For example, if the amount of money in active circulation outstrips the available goods and services for sale, the effect can be inflationary. This can easily happen if governments print money without attention to the level of economic activity or counterfeiters are allowed to flourish.
Perhaps the biggest criticism of paper money relates to the fact that its stability is highly dependent on the stability of the legal system backing the currency. Should the legal system fail, so would the currency that depends on it.
[edit] Credit money
Main article: Credit money
Credit money is any claim against a physical or legal person that can be used for the purchase of goods and services[2]. Credit money differs from commodity and fiat money in two important ways: It is not payable on demand and there is some element of risk that the real value upon fulfillment of the claim will not be equal to real value expected at the time of purchase[2].
This risk comes about in two ways and affects both buyer and seller.
First it is a claim and the claimant may default (not pay). High levels of default have destructive supply side effects. If manufacturers and service providers do not recieve payment for the goods they produce, they will not have the resources to buy the labor and materials needed to produce new goods and services. This reduces supply, increases prices and raises unemployment, possibly triggering a period of stagflation. In extreme cases, widespread defaults can cause a lack of confidence in lending institutions and lead to economic depression. For example, abuse of credit arrangements is considered one of the significant causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s. [6]
The second source of risk is time. Credit money is a promise of future payment. If the interest rate on the claim fails to compensate for the combined impact of the inflation (or deflation) rate and the time value of money, the seller will receive less real value than anticipated. If the interest rate on the claim overcompensates, the buyer will pay more than expected.
[edit] Money supply
Main article: Money supply
Components of US money supply (M1, M2, and M3) since 1959
The money supply is the amount of money available within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply in the US is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the ECB. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of England.
When gold is used as money, the money supply can grow in either of two ways. First, the money supply can increase as the amount of gold increases by new gold mining at about 2% per year, but it can also increase more during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the new world and brought gold back to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This kind of increase helps debtors, and causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. Second, the money supply can increase when the value of gold goes up, as this makes existing stocks of gold more valuable. This kind of increase helps savers and creditors and is called deflation, where items for sale are increasingly less expensive in terms of gold. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold was used as money in the US from 1792 to 1913.
[edit] Monetary policy
Main article: Monetary policy
Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek “to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.” [7]
A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages on imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the various tools used to control the money supply include:
currency purchases or sales
increasing or lowering government spending
increasing or lowering government borrowing
changing the rate at which the government loans or borrows money
manipulation of exchange rates
taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country
raising or lowering bank reserve requirements
regulation or prohibition of private currencies
For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz [8] supported by the work of David Laidler[9], and many others.
Technical, institutional, and legal changes changed the nature of the demand for money during the 1980s and the influence of monetarism has since decreased.
[edit] Social and psychological value of money
Main article: Social and psychological value of money
Money is universally valued; Money today is valued for the products and services for which it can be exchanged, the security it provides against unexpected needs, the economic power it generates, the political influence it exerts, the social status it offers to those who possess it, and also the self-confidence and sense of accomplishment it fosters in those who earn it.
Theories abound to explain the economic value of money in terms of purchasing power. But in order to fully understand the value of money, economic theory is not sufficient. Money has acquired the all-pervasive value that it possesses today by a slow evolutionary process that can be most easily understood by tracing its social and psychological origins from ancient times. Money has to be viewed in a wider context as a social institution based on the consent of the population and as a psychological symbol based on the consent of the individual.
[edit] Quotations on money
"No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other; or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You can't serve both God and Mammon." Gospel of Matthew 6:24
"For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil: which while some coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows." First Epistle to Timothy 6:10
"When it's a question of money, everybody is of the same religion." Voltaire
"Only when the last tree has died and the last river been poisoned and the last fish been caught will we realise we cannot eat money." Cree proverb
"When I have money, I get rid of it quickly, lest it find a way into my heart." John Wesley
"Money. It's a gas." Pink Floyd
"Everybody loves money. That's why it's called 'money'." Danny DeVito
"Money doesn't talk, it swears." Bob Dylan
"I spend money with reckless abandon. Last month I blew five thousand dollars at a reincarnation seminar. I got to thinking, what the hell, you only live once." Ronnie Shakes
"So you think that money is the root of all evil? Have you ever asked what is the root of money? Money is a tool of exchange, which can't exist unless there are goods produced and men able to produce them. Money is the material shape of the principle that men who wish to deal with one another must deal by trade and give value for value. Money is not the tool of the moochers, who claim your product by tears or of the looters, who take it from you by force. Money is made possible only by the men who produce. Is this what you consider evil?" Ayn Rand
"The study of money, above all other fields in economics, is one in which complexity is used to disguise truth or to evade truth, not to reveal it. The process by which banks creates money is so simple that mind is repelled." John Kenneth Galbraith
"If you want to know what a man is really like, take notice of how he acts when he loses money." New England Proverb
"Money is worthless unless some people have it and others do not"
Investing in Buy-to-Let Property
When one has the capital to make a significant investment, the thought of buying a property to let surely comes to mind. Letting out a property can be a fine source of capital growth, however it also requires much work on the part of the landlord. If it is your intention to purchase a property to let, it is important to know a few of the pitfalls along the way and how to avoid them.The first thing you must know is for what purpose you are buying the property. Your objectives might be income, which is your month to month profits from the tenants, or capital growth, which deals with making a profit through increased equity from the second property as the value increases over time. This choice should influence what type of property you purchase and the location of the property. Maintaining a property is an expensive process. As a guide, you should be aiming to achieve a gross rent of at least one hundred thirty-five percent of the property's interest only mortgage repayments. This will help you cover your costs should anything go wrong with the property. There are three great differences with buy to let mortgages that you should know about. Firstly is rent potential. The decision as to whether or not a mortgage is offered is most often based on the rent you will earn in addition to your income. In some cases your income might not even be considered. Secondly is the interest rate. Buy to let mortgages come with a slightly higher interest rate. Lastly is the larger deposit. The deposit is typically a minimum of twenty to twenty-five percent of the property's value.Research into the type of mortgage you wish to apply for is important, of course. For many people, fixed rate interest options are preferable. Repayments for buy to let properties can frequently be done in interest only repayments, but if you wish to repay the entire value of a property then look for a mortgage that will allow you to overpay each month if you desire.Finding a loan that will calculate interest daily instead of annually is more fair to you, since your interest will be calculated on a current balance instead of on repayments that you have already made through the course of the year. Before you decide to apply for your mortgage loan, think about how you want to let your property. You can let the property in various stages of furnishing, but if you choose to let a property with furnishings you will have to buy the furnishings and deal with any damage caused by the residents while you are letting the property. Determine if you can afford to furnish the property, and factor that into the cost you will ask for to let each month.Buying a property to let can be an exciting experience, and although it is hard work it can pay off well in the end. Determine what exactly you want to get out of the letting experience, and how you want to let the property. After that, the sky is the limit.
Organizing a Vehicle
The major factors affecting how a business is organized are usually:
The size and scope of the business, and its anticipated management and ownership : A smaller business is more flexible, larger businesses or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be organized as partnerships or (more commonly) corporations. In addition a business which wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so.
The sector and country : private profit making businesses are different from government owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized certain ways.
Limited liability : corporations, and limited liability partnerships, protect their owners from business failure, and are treated as separate entities, whereas an unincorporated business or person working on their own is usually not so protected.
Tax advantages : Different structures are treated differently in tax law, and may have advantages for this reason.
Disclosure and compliance requirements : different business structures may be required to make more or less information public (or reported to relevant authorities), and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations.
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation, limited partnership or limited liability company. Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders, limited partners, or members, as the case may be, are governed partly by the charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate "person." This means that unless there is misconduct, the owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law, if the business does not succeed.
Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a simple (USA: general) partnership. The terms of a partnership will be partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.
A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether he or she owns it directly or through a formally organized entity.
A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include:
General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.
Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.
In most countries, there are laws which treat small corporations differently than large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment.
In order to "go public" (sometimes called IPO) -- which basically means to allow a part of the business to be owned by a wider range of investors or the public in general -- you must organize a separate entity, which is usually required to comply with a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLCs that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well (for example, REITs in the USA, Unit Trusts in the UK). However, you cannot take a general partnership "public."
[edit] Commercial Law and Other Regulation
Most commercial transactions are governed by a very detailed and well-established body of rules that have evolved over a very long period of time, it being the case that governing trade and commerce was a strong driving force in the creation of law and courts in Western civilization.
As for other laws that regulate or impact businesses, in many countries it is all but impossible to chronicle them all in a single reference source. There are laws governing treatment of labor and generally relations with employees, safety and protection issues (OSHA or Health and Safety), anti-discrimination laws (age, gender, disabilities, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation), minimum wage laws, union laws, workers compensation laws, and annual vacation or working hours time.
In some specialized businesses, there may also be licenses required, either due to special laws that govern entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, which may require special education, or by local governments who just want your money. Professions that require special licenses run the gamut from law and medicine to flying airplanes to selling liquor to radio broadcasting to selling investment securities to selling used cars to roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business without regard to the type of business involved.
Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation. These industries include, for example, public utilities, investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting, aviation, and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can impact many kinds of businesses in unexpected ways.
[edit] Capital
When businesses need to raise money (called 'capital'), more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities (the means of raising money) in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain remedies. Because "securities" is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available.
Capital may be raised through private means, by public offer (IPO) on a stock exchange, or in many other ways. Major stock exchanges include the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq (USA), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), and so on. Most countries with capital markets have at least one.
Business that have gone "public" are subject to extremely detailed and complicated regulation about their internal governance (such as how executive officers' compensation is determined) and when and how information is disclosed to the public and their shareholders. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other Western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.
As noted at the beginning, it is impossible to enumerate all of the types of laws and regulations that impact on business today. In fact, these laws have become so numerous and complex, that no business lawyer can learn them all, forcing increasing specialization among corporate attorneys. It is not unheard of for teams of 5 to 10 attorneys to be required to handle certain kinds of corporate transactions, due to the sprawling nature of modern regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law, healthcare law, securities law, M&A law (who specialize in acquisitions), tax law, ERISA law (ERISA in the United States governs employee benefit plans), food and drug regulatory law, intellectual property law (specializing in copyrights, patents, trademarks and such), telecommunications law, and more.
In Thailand, for example, it is necessary to register a particular amount of capital for each employee, and pay a fee to the government for the amount of capital registered. There is no legal requirement to prove that this capital actually exists, the only requirement is to pay the fee. This is a typical example of a corrupt government using its power to create laws in order to steal money. Overall, processes like this are detrimental to the development and GDP of a country, but often exist in "feudal" developing countries.
[edit] Intellectual property
Businesses often have important "intellectual property" that needs protection from competitors in order to stay profitable. This could require patents or copyrights or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property.
The size and scope of the business, and its anticipated management and ownership : A smaller business is more flexible, larger businesses or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be organized as partnerships or (more commonly) corporations. In addition a business which wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so.
The sector and country : private profit making businesses are different from government owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized certain ways.
Limited liability : corporations, and limited liability partnerships, protect their owners from business failure, and are treated as separate entities, whereas an unincorporated business or person working on their own is usually not so protected.
Tax advantages : Different structures are treated differently in tax law, and may have advantages for this reason.
Disclosure and compliance requirements : different business structures may be required to make more or less information public (or reported to relevant authorities), and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations.
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation, limited partnership or limited liability company. Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders, limited partners, or members, as the case may be, are governed partly by the charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate "person." This means that unless there is misconduct, the owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law, if the business does not succeed.
Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a simple (USA: general) partnership. The terms of a partnership will be partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.
A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether he or she owns it directly or through a formally organized entity.
A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include:
General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.
Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.
In most countries, there are laws which treat small corporations differently than large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment.
In order to "go public" (sometimes called IPO) -- which basically means to allow a part of the business to be owned by a wider range of investors or the public in general -- you must organize a separate entity, which is usually required to comply with a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLCs that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well (for example, REITs in the USA, Unit Trusts in the UK). However, you cannot take a general partnership "public."
[edit] Commercial Law and Other Regulation
Most commercial transactions are governed by a very detailed and well-established body of rules that have evolved over a very long period of time, it being the case that governing trade and commerce was a strong driving force in the creation of law and courts in Western civilization.
As for other laws that regulate or impact businesses, in many countries it is all but impossible to chronicle them all in a single reference source. There are laws governing treatment of labor and generally relations with employees, safety and protection issues (OSHA or Health and Safety), anti-discrimination laws (age, gender, disabilities, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation), minimum wage laws, union laws, workers compensation laws, and annual vacation or working hours time.
In some specialized businesses, there may also be licenses required, either due to special laws that govern entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, which may require special education, or by local governments who just want your money. Professions that require special licenses run the gamut from law and medicine to flying airplanes to selling liquor to radio broadcasting to selling investment securities to selling used cars to roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business without regard to the type of business involved.
Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation. These industries include, for example, public utilities, investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting, aviation, and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can impact many kinds of businesses in unexpected ways.
[edit] Capital
When businesses need to raise money (called 'capital'), more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities (the means of raising money) in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain remedies. Because "securities" is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available.
Capital may be raised through private means, by public offer (IPO) on a stock exchange, or in many other ways. Major stock exchanges include the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq (USA), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), and so on. Most countries with capital markets have at least one.
Business that have gone "public" are subject to extremely detailed and complicated regulation about their internal governance (such as how executive officers' compensation is determined) and when and how information is disclosed to the public and their shareholders. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other Western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.
As noted at the beginning, it is impossible to enumerate all of the types of laws and regulations that impact on business today. In fact, these laws have become so numerous and complex, that no business lawyer can learn them all, forcing increasing specialization among corporate attorneys. It is not unheard of for teams of 5 to 10 attorneys to be required to handle certain kinds of corporate transactions, due to the sprawling nature of modern regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law, healthcare law, securities law, M&A law (who specialize in acquisitions), tax law, ERISA law (ERISA in the United States governs employee benefit plans), food and drug regulatory law, intellectual property law (specializing in copyrights, patents, trademarks and such), telecommunications law, and more.
In Thailand, for example, it is necessary to register a particular amount of capital for each employee, and pay a fee to the government for the amount of capital registered. There is no legal requirement to prove that this capital actually exists, the only requirement is to pay the fee. This is a typical example of a corrupt government using its power to create laws in order to steal money. Overall, processes like this are detrimental to the development and GDP of a country, but often exist in "feudal" developing countries.
[edit] Intellectual property
Businesses often have important "intellectual property" that needs protection from competitors in order to stay profitable. This could require patents or copyrights or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property.
Types of business ownership
In economics, business is the social science of managing people to organize and maintain collective productivity toward accomplishing particular creative and productive goals, usually to generate profit.
The etymology of "business" refers to the state of being busy, in the context of the individual as well as the community or society. In other words, to be busy is to be doing commercially viable and profitable work.
The term "business" has at least three usages, depending on the scope — the general usage (above), the singular usage to refer to a particular company or corporation, and the generalized usage to refer to a particular market sector, such as "the record business," "the computer business," or "the business community" -- the community of suppliers of goods and services.
The singular "business" can be a legally-recognized entity within an economically free society, wherein individuals organize based on expertise and skills to bring about social and technological advancement.
In predominantly capitalist economies, businesses are typically formed to earn profit and grow the personal wealth of their owners.
The owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives the receipt or generation of a financial return in exchange for their work — that is, the expense of time and energy — and for their acceptance of risk — investing work and money without certainty of success.
Notable exceptions to this rule include cooperative businesses and government institutions.
However, the exact definition of business is disputable as is business philosophy; for example, some Marxists use "means of production" as a rough synonym for "business"; however a more accurate definition of "means of production" would be the resources and apparatus by which products and services are created.
Control of these resources and apparatus results in control of business activity, and so, while they are very closely related, they are not the same thing.
Socialists advocate either government, public, or worker ownership of most sizable businesses. Some advocate a mixed economy of private and state-owned enterprises. Others advocate a capitalist economy where all, or nearly all, enterprises are privately owned.
Business Studies is taught as a subject in many schools.There are a number of types of business unit:
Sole Proprietorship: a business owned by one person. The owner may operate on their own or may employ others. The owner of the business has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the business.
Partnership: A partnership is a form of business in which two or more people operate for the common goal of making profit. Each partner has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the partnership.
Cooperative Business: (often referred to as a Co-Op business or Co-Ops) use a cooperative business structure: for-profit, limited liability, but with members of the co-op share decision-making authority. Co-Ops normally fall into three types: consumer co-ops, producer co-ops (common in agriculture) and worker-owned companies. Co-Ops are fundamental to the ideology of Economic democracy.
Limited Companies
Private Limited Company (Ltd): a small to medium sized business that is often run by the family or the small group who own it. The owners and managers are only liable for the business up to the amount they have invested in the company, and are not liable for the debts incurred by the company unless they have signed a personal guarantee.
Public Limited Company (Plc): a business with limited liability, a wide spread of shareholders and in the UK, a share capital of over £50,000. The owners and managers are only liable for the business up to the amount they have invested in the company, and are not liable for the debts incurred by the company (unless they have signed a personal guarantee, which usually is not the case for a large corporation).
In the United States and some other countries, a limited company is known as either a corporation or a limited liability company.
Franchise: a new and popular form of business, especially in the United States. This is where an individual or small business (the franchisee) is given the right to use the identity and sell the products or services of another firm (franchisor). The chances of success for the franchisee are high, however a small portion of the profits must go to the franchisor. Examples of this form of business ownership include McDonalds, Burger King and the Body Shop.
Commercial Street, Bangalore. India
There are many types of businesses, and, as a result, businesses can be classified in many ways. One of the most common focuses on the primary profit-generating activities of a business, for example:
Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers.
Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms to restaurants and even to entertainers are types of service businesses.
Retailers and Distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalogue companies are distributors or retailers.
Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals.
Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital.
Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies.
Utilities produce public services, such as heat, electricity, or sewage treatment, and are usually government chartered.
Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties, homes, and buildings.
Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs
There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America (although it is widely used around the world) is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent
The etymology of "business" refers to the state of being busy, in the context of the individual as well as the community or society. In other words, to be busy is to be doing commercially viable and profitable work.
The term "business" has at least three usages, depending on the scope — the general usage (above), the singular usage to refer to a particular company or corporation, and the generalized usage to refer to a particular market sector, such as "the record business," "the computer business," or "the business community" -- the community of suppliers of goods and services.
The singular "business" can be a legally-recognized entity within an economically free society, wherein individuals organize based on expertise and skills to bring about social and technological advancement.
In predominantly capitalist economies, businesses are typically formed to earn profit and grow the personal wealth of their owners.
The owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives the receipt or generation of a financial return in exchange for their work — that is, the expense of time and energy — and for their acceptance of risk — investing work and money without certainty of success.
Notable exceptions to this rule include cooperative businesses and government institutions.
However, the exact definition of business is disputable as is business philosophy; for example, some Marxists use "means of production" as a rough synonym for "business"; however a more accurate definition of "means of production" would be the resources and apparatus by which products and services are created.
Control of these resources and apparatus results in control of business activity, and so, while they are very closely related, they are not the same thing.
Socialists advocate either government, public, or worker ownership of most sizable businesses. Some advocate a mixed economy of private and state-owned enterprises. Others advocate a capitalist economy where all, or nearly all, enterprises are privately owned.
Business Studies is taught as a subject in many schools.There are a number of types of business unit:
Sole Proprietorship: a business owned by one person. The owner may operate on their own or may employ others. The owner of the business has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the business.
Partnership: A partnership is a form of business in which two or more people operate for the common goal of making profit. Each partner has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the partnership.
Cooperative Business: (often referred to as a Co-Op business or Co-Ops) use a cooperative business structure: for-profit, limited liability, but with members of the co-op share decision-making authority. Co-Ops normally fall into three types: consumer co-ops, producer co-ops (common in agriculture) and worker-owned companies. Co-Ops are fundamental to the ideology of Economic democracy.
Limited Companies
Private Limited Company (Ltd): a small to medium sized business that is often run by the family or the small group who own it. The owners and managers are only liable for the business up to the amount they have invested in the company, and are not liable for the debts incurred by the company unless they have signed a personal guarantee.
Public Limited Company (Plc): a business with limited liability, a wide spread of shareholders and in the UK, a share capital of over £50,000. The owners and managers are only liable for the business up to the amount they have invested in the company, and are not liable for the debts incurred by the company (unless they have signed a personal guarantee, which usually is not the case for a large corporation).
In the United States and some other countries, a limited company is known as either a corporation or a limited liability company.
Franchise: a new and popular form of business, especially in the United States. This is where an individual or small business (the franchisee) is given the right to use the identity and sell the products or services of another firm (franchisor). The chances of success for the franchisee are high, however a small portion of the profits must go to the franchisor. Examples of this form of business ownership include McDonalds, Burger King and the Body Shop.
Commercial Street, Bangalore. India
There are many types of businesses, and, as a result, businesses can be classified in many ways. One of the most common focuses on the primary profit-generating activities of a business, for example:
Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers.
Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms to restaurants and even to entertainers are types of service businesses.
Retailers and Distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalogue companies are distributors or retailers.
Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals.
Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital.
Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies.
Utilities produce public services, such as heat, electricity, or sewage treatment, and are usually government chartered.
Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties, homes, and buildings.
Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs
There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America (although it is widely used around the world) is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
